Investigation of the beer - Lambert law Lab Report

Investigation of the beer - Lambert law - Lab Report Example It illustrated in the diagram below. Beer-Lambert law states that the absorbance is directly proportional to the concentration of the solution. It relates the absorbance of sample (A) to the concentration of the substance in the solution absorbing it and the path length of the light. Incident light from a tungsten or deuterium lamp is focused through a lens and passed through a slit. Passing the beam through the wavelength selector diffracts it separating it into light of a single wavelength. This particular wavelength is selected and exits through the slit. The light passing through the sample is detected by the photo detector which then converts it into an electrical current measured by the galvanometer. The reading is then sent to a read-out device. The plot of absorbance of light at different wavelengths is called it absorption spectrum. Fig. 1 gives the absorption spectrum of potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ). According to Beer-Lambert law, absorbance is directly proportional to concentration. This is clearly illustrated by Fig. 4. This is also known as a calibration curve. It should be drawn with utmost accuracy in order to obtain a straight line graph. The slope of this curve is equal to the absorbance of the potassium permanganate (Skoog, 45). One source of error is the use of inappropriate concentrations when applying Beer-Lambert law. It is only applicable for dilute solutions and becomes less accurate with increase in concentration. Another source of error is stray light or scattering within the instrument as this cause large errors especially when reading small values. The aim of the experiment was obtained because Beer-Lambert law was verified. Using linear regression analysis, Beer-Lambert law (A = ÃŽ µlc) implies that when concentration is equal to zero, absorbance must also be zero. This is a straight line equation passing through the origin hence the aim was achieved (Svanberg,

Public and Private Sector Accounting Essay Example for Free

Public and Private Sector Accounting Essay Accounting, known by and large to be a skilled, remunerative, but rather dry profession, has a long and fascinating history. In existence practically from the dawn of civilization, in one form or the other, accounting activity has been integral to some of the most important phases of history. Responsible for the invention of writing, accountants have over the ages, (because of their organic and fundamental association with the processes of trade, business, industry, governance, and taxation), been involved in monarchy and empire expansion, the process of colonisation, the industrial revolution, the World Wars, scientific progress, globalisation, and the spread of neo liberal economics across the world. Confucius, as a government official, was responsible for accounting, and much of what we know about the daily lives of ancient peoples comes from accounting records, such as inventories and sales records, found at archaeological sites. Accounting evolution has followed dissimilar routes in different countries and states and has been extensively shaped by the immediate and larger environment. Japan’s accounting processes, for example, which were significantly shaped by western influences, are very dissimilar from that of neighbouring China and have played an important role in the country’s far more rapid advancement in business, industry and international trade in the 19th and 20th centuries. Accounting policies and procedures in the modern day have, in somewhat similar fashion, evolved rather differently for private sector businesses and public sector corporations, being shaped and constructed by the unlike needs of the two sectors, the dissimilar nature of their income and expenditure streams, the different control processes under which they operate, and their diverse reporting requirements. Recent years have however witnessed significant rethinking in and rerouting of the functioning of public enterprises; the steadily increasing application of neo-liberal economic principles and greater accountability for the commercial and financial success of public sector corporations, leading to increasing convergence between the accounting policies and practices of the public with that of the private sector. This essay attempts to investigate the reasons for the differences in their historical evolution, and the current worldwide efforts to bring about greater convergence between the two accounting methods. Commentary and Discussion Historical Overview of Evolution of Accounting Whilst the extent of involvement of accounting activity in historical life across cultures is becoming clearer with the progress of archaeological work, the accounting profession has historically chosen to adopt a low profile, there being very few pioneers who can be identified with major accounting developments. The most important historical name to arise, in this connection, is that of Luca Pacioli, who in 1494 wrote a book on mathematics, in which he discussed the concept of double entry book keeping. The chapter on practical mathematics addressed mathematics in business. He said that the successful merchant needs three things: sufficient cash or credit, an accounting system that can tell him how he’s doing, and good bookkeeper to operate it. His accounting system consisted of journals and ledgers. It rested on the invention of double-entry bookkeeping. Debits were on the left side because that’ s what â€Å"debit† meant, â€Å"the left†. The numbers on the right were named â€Å"credits†. If everything was done right, then the bookkeeper could do a trial balance (â€Å"summa summarium†). Add up all the debits and then add up all the credits, he said. If everything had been done right, the totals should match. If not, â€Å"that would indicate a mistake in your Ledger, which mistake you will have to look for diligently with the industry and intelligence God gave you. † He wrote† It is difficult to overestimate the importance of double entry bookkeeping. Simple and adequate for the needs of business, it caught on immediately with Italian merchants, was central to their success, and contributed towards the impetus that led to the emergence of the Renaissance. Whilst the conceptualisation and implementation of the double entry system of bookkeeping in the 15th century was the first major watershed in the development of modern day accounting theory, the following centuries were also witness to a number of major developments in Europe and Asia in the area of business recording and accounting, many of which contributed to the development of modern day accounting principles and policies. Notwithstanding Pacioli’s seminal contribution to accounting methodology, a number of other renaissance forces also helped in giving body and shape to the discipline; key factors among these being the concept of private property, capital, widespread commerce, money, the use of credit, the development of arithmetic, and the growing use of writing for recording transactions. Although many of these factors did exist in ancient times, they were not found together, until the Middle-Ages, in a form and strength necessary to push for the innovation of double entry. Accounting rules, policies and practices evolved over time in response to the needs of businesses and to a range of developments. The emergence of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century led accountants to devise accounting methods for finding the cost of production; large scale production of goods in the United States led to the formulation of cost accounting procedures, the arrival of income tax laws saw substantial modifications in the practice of keeping accounting records, and the great depression of the early decades of the 20th century led to the introduction of standards, the establishment of accounting principles and accounting frameworks. Josiah Wedgwood, the famous potter, contributed significantly to cost accounting by studying his books, manufacturing cost structure, overhead, and market structure to avoid bankruptcy during the recession. He became an accounting pioneer and his firm survives even today. Accountancy practices in recent years have been repeatedly scrutinised, modified and clarified through the setting up of accounting standards, the establishment of auditor responsibilities and the enactment of laws for appropriate disclosure. The reputation of the accounting profession has been severely tarnished by corporate scams and frauds like Enron, which has led to the questioning of accounting methods and principles, as well the integrity of the accounting profession. Accounting systems and practices, whilst developing side by side all over the world have followed distinctly different routes, being influenced by institutional and cultural factors. Institutional factors like legal systems, taxation laws, financing norms and methods, credit availability and stock exchange requirements, which have been markedly different for Anglo-Saxon, European, Central Asian, and East Asian environments have shaped the development of accounting systems accordingly. Researchers like Hofstede and Gray have theorised that cultural differences have also played a significant role in the establishment of different accounting systems in different countries. Gray took up Hofstede’s cultural hypotheses and linked them to the development of accounting systems in a meaningful way, stating that cultural or societal values permeated through organisational and occupational subcultures, and vice versa, though obviously the degree of integration differed from place to place. â€Å"Accounting systems and practices can influence and reinforce societal values† Development of Accounting Methods in the Public and Private Sectors The power of various influences to shape the development of accounting systems and methodologies is also evident in the shaping of accounting norms for the public sector and their significant differences from those adopted by or enforced upon the private sector; the public sector, basically implying corporations whose ownership vested with governments, and whose control was accordingly decided by government diktat. Whilst governments had until the 1930s focussed mainly on the controlling of law and order, defence, foreign policy, and similar other areas, the end of the Second World War saw them taking a far greater interest in business and commercial affairs, as well as in infrastructural sectors. Whilst some of these developments were due to the influence of socialist thought and the example set by socialist states, (where all businesses were controlled by the government), they were also influenced by the widespread disenchantment with the capitalist way of governance after the great depression of the 1930s. The huge task of nation building after the devastation caused by World War II made it necessary for governments to actually contribute to infrastructure building, nursing of revived industries, and setting up of new businesses. In the UK, activities like mining and railways were controlled by the government. In Italy the state owned IRI (Institute for Industrial Reconstruction) owned companies engaged in mining, steel, airlines, banking, telephones, and automobile manufacture, and in India the government, apart from controlling all infrastructural activity also controlled the majority of heavy business investment and activity. Substantial governmental control over infrastructural and commercial activity, in addition to its existing control over governmental departments, led to the evolution of a significantly different form of accounting than what was followed by the private sector. The most important of these differences concerned the mode of booking expenditures and incomes, which in the private sector worked on the accrual basis, even whilst the public sector chose to stay with the older method of recording them only after they had been realised in cash or kind. The cash basis of accounting, which records income or expenditure transactions only after such transactions have resulted in the physical receipt or payment of cash, constituted the commonly followed way of accounting for all enterprises, until the adoption of the accrual way of accounting by businesses, changed commonly held accounting perspectives. The cash system records accounting events when they become tangible, e. g. , when a customer’s check arrives, when a shipped product reaches the customer, or when money for a business-related expense is removed from the bank. Cash accounting registers income when money arrives and registers expenses when money goes out of the business. Even today the cash accounting method is a more familiar accounting method because of its use by most individuals in tracking of personal finances. Under this method, one’s income is taxable when it is received, and expenses are deductible when they are paid. Cash accounting remains a straightforward and easily understood method of record-keeping for tax purposes. The accrual method on the other hand approaches accounting events in real time. A sale is registered as soon as a customer receives a consignment even though the actual payment could come much later. Similarly an expense is recorded as soon as the event occurs and a liability recorded as soon as an event occur, whether it is purchase of material, use of services like water or electricity and use of employed or contracted labor, even though such transactions do not involve the simultaneous exchange of money. Over time most private sector businesses, apart from those controlled by small individuals or which were small in size, chose to switch over to the accrual system, forced as much by pressure from regulatory bodies and lending institutions, as by their desire to reflect more logical and realistic business and accounting outcomes. Most tax systems stipulate the compulsory use of accrual systems for private businesses after they achieve a certain size or adopt specified legal structures like those of privately owned or joint stock companies. Most public sector organisations, across the world, however chose to remain with the cash based system of accounting. Such decisions grew out of certain specific circumstances. Governments are essentially different in their nature from businesses, the information required for better understanding and assessment of the financial operations of government organisations extending beyond the reporting of surpluses and deficits. Governments, unlike the private sector, whilst required to run their operations efficiently, are required to provide goods and services to the public, which in some cases becomes more important than making profits. The measurement of surpluses or deficits is in many cases not the primary indicator of the performance of government working. In many countries the public sector continues to retain a separate and different approach from the private sector. Their services are often provided free at the point of use and there is little or no direct link between the cost of these and government income, which is mainly in the form of taxation. The government, in many cases, decides upon the amount of grants required for specific public sector organisations through the formulation of budgets and provides the same on a periodic basis; many such organisations preferring to call their financial statements â€Å"receipt and expenditure† rather than profit and loss statements. The accounting policies of public sector organisations are also shaped by their different reporting requirements. Private sector organisations, especially those that are legally structured as joint stock companies need to provide a true and fair description of their financial performance for the benefit of their shareholders, the tax authorities, and other stakeholders. Even smaller organisations need to necessarily satisfy the requirements of tax departments and their owners, and their accountants routinely adopt the accrual system for recording transactions and preparing statements. Reporting requirements for government controlled organizations is significantly different. Comparison of actual disbursals and expenses with those budgeted is a routine requirement, a need that is more conveniently filled through the use of cash accounting records. The managements of such organisations also have to report on specific information needs of various bodies, including supervisory government departments, parliamentary bodies, and the governmental auditors. Conclusion Recent years have seen extensive debate in public sector accounting and the changes made in many countries for shifting from the cash to the accrual basis of accounting. Public sector working has been influenced during the last three decades by the concepts of New Public Management, (NPM), which expressly calls for enhancement of the efficiency, effectiveness, and accountability of public service delivery through the implementation of a wide range of changes that include deregulation, decentralisation, outsourcing, substitution of input control by output control, result orientation, responsibility assignment and introduction and implementation of private sector management techniques. Whilst the adoption of the accrual system of accounting will lead to the production of more logical and more accurate financial statements, the convergence process will need extensive retraining and education not just of public sector accountants but also of public sector auditors and the users of these financial statements. Such lack of familiarity may lead to inaccuracies in the preparation of financial statements and will need to be addressed through appropriate training and skills upgradation of the concerned people. With the aim of public sector reforms being the dismantling of bureaucracy and more efficient use of resources, increased managerial autonomy and discretion is being accompanied by an emphasis on more extensive accounting practices. Again with accounting playing a key role in NPM implementation and in public sector reforms, the need for greater convergence between public and private sector accounting is being increasingly evidenced. Significant accounting reforms are taking place in many countries, more specifically in the United States, the UK, and West and Nordic Europe. Many public sector companies are changing their accounting policies to institutionalise accrual accounting for budgetary and external financial reporting purposes in order to provide useful information about liabilities, debt, usage of assets, and the cost of public services Whilst change is coming about slowly in public sector accounting, the issue is still being debated vigorously in many countries. The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) formulated the â€Å"Guideline for Governmental Financial Reporting† in 1998 to help public sector units at all levels to prepare their financial reports on the basis of accruals. The IFAC Guideline, along with the International Accounting Standards (IAS) followed by the private sector, make the basis for the International Public sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS) developed by the Public sector Committee (PSC) of IFAC.

How do the two poets use Visual Description to contribute to their :: English Literature

How do the two poets use Visual Description to contribute to their Underlying Theme? - Keats and Hopkins in Hurrahing in harvest and To Autumn. How do the two poets use Visual Description to contribute to their Underlying Theme? There are many similarities between the descriptions of the two poets and probably the most obvious is that both of the poems refer to the seasons with Keats and Hopkins in 'Hurrahing in Harvest' and 'To Autumn' referring to autumn and Hopkins to spring in 'Spring'. Both of the poets use the these natural events (the seasons) to suggest their own underlying means even though they are different and they also use personification all throughout the poems to suggest their underlying mean and an example of this would be two titles of the poems 'Hurrahing in Harvest' and 'To Autumn' which both personify the seasons. However even though from a glance both of the poems look like they are suggesting similar things this is not true because if a closer look is taken it is clear that both of the poets use lots of description but that it is very different because looking at Hopkins poems he uses sort of riddles and an example of this would be in 'Hurrahing in Harvest' and this is shown in the following quote: Of silk-sack clouds! has wilder, willful-wavier Meal-drift moulded ever and melted across skies? Looking at the words highlighted in blue this is an Anglo Saxon riddles (a kenning) used to describe the clouds as if they were floating around in the sky and he used these riddles so that he did not have to use the exact words and he also wanted to use them as they were used in Anglo Saxon poems so that he did not have to use rhymes to make the poem flow and instead use alliterations to make it flow and there are many examples of the use of alliterations such as 'what wind-walks' in Hurrahing in Harvest and 'long and lovely and lush' and taking this as an example he uses asinations where he uses repeated vowel sounds to try and make the poem flow. However Keats does not use either asinations or alliterations to make the poem flow and he uses rhyme schemes to do this. Similar words are also used in the poems such as the word 'lambs' although they are superficial and have very minor similarities but the differences are great as Hopkins uses the words 'the racing lambs' to emphasize new life whereas Keats uses the words 'full-grown lambs' to suggest ending. There is also the use of the word 'bloom' however it How do the two poets use Visual Description to contribute to their :: English Literature How do the two poets use Visual Description to contribute to their Underlying Theme? - Keats and Hopkins in Hurrahing in harvest and To Autumn. How do the two poets use Visual Description to contribute to their Underlying Theme? There are many similarities between the descriptions of the two poets and probably the most obvious is that both of the poems refer to the seasons with Keats and Hopkins in 'Hurrahing in Harvest' and 'To Autumn' referring to autumn and Hopkins to spring in 'Spring'. Both of the poets use the these natural events (the seasons) to suggest their own underlying means even though they are different and they also use personification all throughout the poems to suggest their underlying mean and an example of this would be two titles of the poems 'Hurrahing in Harvest' and 'To Autumn' which both personify the seasons. However even though from a glance both of the poems look like they are suggesting similar things this is not true because if a closer look is taken it is clear that both of the poets use lots of description but that it is very different because looking at Hopkins poems he uses sort of riddles and an example of this would be in 'Hurrahing in Harvest' and this is shown in the following quote: Of silk-sack clouds! has wilder, willful-wavier Meal-drift moulded ever and melted across skies? Looking at the words highlighted in blue this is an Anglo Saxon riddles (a kenning) used to describe the clouds as if they were floating around in the sky and he used these riddles so that he did not have to use the exact words and he also wanted to use them as they were used in Anglo Saxon poems so that he did not have to use rhymes to make the poem flow and instead use alliterations to make it flow and there are many examples of the use of alliterations such as 'what wind-walks' in Hurrahing in Harvest and 'long and lovely and lush' and taking this as an example he uses asinations where he uses repeated vowel sounds to try and make the poem flow. However Keats does not use either asinations or alliterations to make the poem flow and he uses rhyme schemes to do this. Similar words are also used in the poems such as the word 'lambs' although they are superficial and have very minor similarities but the differences are great as Hopkins uses the words 'the racing lambs' to emphasize new life whereas Keats uses the words 'full-grown lambs' to suggest ending. There is also the use of the word 'bloom' however it

Injuries of Snowboarding :: Essays Papers

Injuries of Snowboarding In The Dangers of Snowboarding, told by Taikoh Dohjima the dangers of snowboarding are at high risks and bring many risks to the sport and show that many of the snowboarders have little experience. The high dangers of snowboarders has become more of a problem during the years. Snowboarders attempts for hard maneuvers are of novice snowboarders who don’t have the right equipment. â€Å"The dangers of snowboarding are becoming known, and protectors and releasable bindings are becoming more widely available†(660). The attempts snowboarders make hard maneuvers for the first time are very hard, and are shown by their accidents and injuries that happen. Snowboarders have become very popular since the 1998 Nagano Olympic games. Snowboarders have struggled with many battles with defending themselves towards the skiers. The injuries of skiers and snowboarders are caused by poor training and lack of confidence. The snowboarders are faced with many harsh conditions while learning how to snowboard. â€Å"In the year of 1989 to 1997 a poll was taken of 1500 people and it showed that skiers had more injuries than snowboarders†(657). The snowboarder injuries take place mainly in their upper body. â€Å"The types of snowboarding injuries included fractures, lacerations, dislocations, and contusions†(657). This occurs because Snowboarders have to stop themselves with their arms and upper chest area. The experts observed, â€Å"snowboarders tend to ride down the slope in a regular style (with the left side in front), so they tend to fall on their left shoulder†(659). The conditions are extremely harmful and da ngerous for the body, which also attributes to the problem. The data that has been collected is very credible for snowboarders and skiers such as â€Å"the poll/questionnaire where the patients name, age, sex, location, and slope grade, snow condition, experience and the mode of injury†(Taikoh 657-658). The majority of accidents that happen on the slopes are from novice skiers and snowboarders. The lack of experience the snowboarders show poor training. The accidents on the slopes are caused during the beginning trial of starting to learn how to snow board or ski down mountains. Snowboarding has become a very popular sport throughout the years, many skiers are moving towards snowboarding because it’s different and it becomes a challenge.

Domestic Violence and Ethical Dilemma Worksheet Essay

1.What is the ethical issue or problem? Identify the issue succinctly. The ethical issue that the police officers did not visibly see the husband drive his car they only suspect that he did so therefor they cannot arrest him on a DUI 2.What are the most important facts? Which facts have the most bearing on the ethical decision presented? Include any important potential economic, social, or political pressures, and exclude inconsequential facts. The most important facts would be what the police officers observed. The husband staggering up to the door him also is fumbling with his keys the hood of the car being warm. In addition to the husband being visible intoxicated with slurred speech and failing a sobriety test. However the most important factor is officer Nixon’s experience and him being able to provide probable cause for an arrest. 3.Identify each claimant (key actor) who has an interest in the outcome of this ethical issue. From the perspective of the moral agent—the individual contemplating an ethical course of action—what obligation is owed to the claimant? Why? Claimant (key actor)Obligation (owed to the claimant)Perspective (What does the claimant hope will happen?) HusbandJusticesThe husband will try to avoid being arrested and possible prosecuted for domestic violence and driving under the influence. Wife Fidelity May not want her husband being arrested however she would like to feel safe in her own home. In addition, she does not want her husband to hurt someone or kill them while he is driving drunk. Officer NixonFidelity Wants to be able to protect the wife from her abusive husband and the citizens. However in his oath he took he needs to follow the law. Officer RookBeneficenceWould be the same as officer Nixon however with him being new on the job his decision in this situation could affect his future decisions. Citizens of the communityFidelityCitizens want to feel safe in their community.

The Trade-Offs of Technological Advancements essays

The Trade-Offs of Technological Advancements essays With continual advances in health, science, and technology, all aspects of a person's life are greatly improved. Once devastating diseases are now better understood and sometimes even treatable. With transportation advances, people easily hop on a jet and soar across the world in a matter of hours. Similarly, information is changing by the second, with the Internet providing immediate 24/7 access anywhere, anytime. Technology has even changed entertainment, as X-Box or online players vie worldwide. However, there are always trade-offs in life, and it is not any different from these medical, transportation and communication advances. During the 20th century and now into the 21st century there has been continuous progress in the health field. One of the most notable is the discovery of penicillin by bacteriologist Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928 when he observed colonies of a bacterium. This was the beginning of curing numerous illnesses with vaccines and antibiotics that greatly reduced the annual death rate. The average seniors, people over 50 years old, are living longer and healthier lives than ever before. The life expectancy is greater than ever in the U.S., just about 78 years, according to the Center for Disease Control. According to Encarta, however, medical enhancements brought an increase in other diseases. Since the arrival of "miracle drugs," cancer rates have risen despite significant improvements in treatment. Cancer and heart disease were the leading causes of death at the beginning of the 21st century, partly due to the increased aging population and ability to cure other ailments. In addition, an unhealthy lifestyle is becoming more common due to increased well being, with too many Americans eating high-fat foods and high-calorie snacks and not exercising. Automobiles, fast trains, and supersonic jets allow people to get to one place to another very quickly and easily. This transportation has greatly improved the ...

Explaining Different Types Of Essays - Paperell.com

Explaining Different Types Of Essays Explaining Different Types Of Essays When students start learning at a college, they may wonder â€Å"what is an essay and why do we need to write it while studying at a college and university?† It is not difficult as it’s supposed to be but you need to spend time and use your skills when creating an essay Each essay is a short piece of writing. It usually has a topic so it lets a student show what he or she thinks about it, do a research, make analysis, and present their point of view. The process of essay creating involves reading sources and making deductions. There are many different types of essay writing and each of them can be presented in its specified format. What to keep in mind? When you are going to create an essay, you should know the preferred type and write it in an appropriate format. The difficulty of an essay can be different, from small narrative papers about your experience to bigger complex documents based on your research. Each essay type has its style and objectives. If you donâ€⠄¢t understand how to create a paper of a specific type, you can hire a writer and use a website with essays for sale and other papers. It is a fast way of getting a ready paper on any topic you need.Explaining Different Types Of Essays5-paragraph EssayThis is a short paper that consists of the five paragraphs. The first paragraph is an introduction, it is followed by the three paragraphs of the main body, and the paper end with a conclusion. It has a simple structure so it doesn’t take much time to create.Admission EssayWhen you are applying to any college or university, you can be required to write an admission paper. There you will show that you are worth learning there, present your achievements and skills, and prove why you are better than the others.Argumentative EssayThis type of a paper requires the negotiable topic. It lets you show your opinion about it. Then you find arguments to prove that this opinion and true and you are more right about it than other students o r other members of a conversation.Cause and EffectEvery event has its causes and the research of connections between causes and effects can help you to study fields that haven’t been studied before. It also helps to predict things and make forecasts by the current knowledge.ClassificationThis paper helps you to show your skills of sorting things and dividing them into groups. You have to develop a specific organizing principle and use it to sort things into several categories. You should be able to explain why each item belongs to its category.ComparisonIt lets you compare two or more different artists, historical periods, or other items. You should find differences and similarities between these items and then list them in your paper, go from less to more significant differences and similarities.CriticalIt shows your own position about any painting, book, or other work that was created by another person – you need to tell what do you think about it and why do you thin k so. You should explain your position and your thoughts on the subject.DeductiveWhen having a set of circumstances, a student can make assumptions about the current state of the situation; thus, when preparing a deductive essay, you work with a premise, evidence, and the conclusion.DefinitionIt presents a definition of a specific term. Write a term that you are going to define at the beginning of a paper. Then you need to present information on it, use examples and evidence to create a good definition for this term.ExploratoryMany types require you to define your position and find arguments to prove it. However, the exploratory essay doesn’t need you to express your thoughts. You gather information on a topic, study it and present several different positions about it.ExpositoryIt also doesn’t need to you to show your point of view. It is about facts, evidence, details, and points of view of other people. When writing an expository paper, you can give more information on a subject of your research and explain it to readers.InformalIt is opposite to formal style of paper writing. There are much fewer requirements for the structure, formatting, and order of sections; such documents are usually written for relax and enjoyment, not for scientific objectives.LiteratureYou take a novel, a book, or another type of writing and analyze it. Pay attention to its style, theme, technique, setting, and other elements, don’t retell the story but show your vision of it.NarrativeThis paper is presented as a story and told from your point of view. It lets you write about yourself and your experience. This type is comparatively easy in writing but you still may need an assignment help from professionals.PersonalThis is a paper about yourself, your skills and experience, n your vision of the subject. Show why are you interested in a specific field and how did you learn about it, make sure you can make impression on readers that have never seen you before.Pers uasiveIt is similar to the argumentative style of writing. You do a research on your topic, define your position, find evidence, and provide arguments to convince readers that you’re right. It helps you to develop your persuasive skills.ResearchIt is based on the results of your research. You are able to describe the objectives of your research, used methodologies, sources for information, and the meaning of results of your research.ResponseThis is a paper written in response to any work you have read, watched, or listened. Tell readers whether you agree with it or not, what do you think, what are your impressions and thoughts about it.Scholarship EssayIt is similar to application essay that you write to get a scholarship, here you present your skills and experience, tell about who you are and what your main objectives are, and show why you should win.ConclusionThere are many types of papers and each of them has its style of writing. You need to know the preferred type and yo ur objectives before writing any essay and ask your instructor if there are more requirements. When learning at college or university, you will work with different ways of academic writing. That is why it is better to develop writing skills early. With time, you will create more and more interesting essays. It is recommended to read an essay writing guide before working on the document, it shows you how to present information, how to develop a good structure, and how to prove that you are right. Each type of essay may have its specific guide.

Characterize the Daily Life of a Woman in the West Essays

Characterize the Daily Life of a Woman in the West Essays Characterize the Daily Life of a Woman in the West Essay Characterize the Daily Life of a Woman in the West Essay Facts About the West- Where Are the Black Folks Or, for That Matter Where Is the Vaquero the Essential By learnings unit Three Chapter 18 Writing Assignment During the late sasss to early SASS women In the west were valued In their work In the home, on the streets and some women during this time played the same roles as men being Cowgirls. However, women mainly held their responsibilities In the home. Women played the role of a wife, a mother, a seamstress and often nurses. Their domestic duties Including gassing their children, farm work, gathering food and milk along with utilizing their sewing skills. These women had much to do while often their husband is out looking for gold, working from dusk to dawn laboring and doing the other duties that were not as common for the wives to be doing. Often there was so much work to be done in the home that women would have their children assist them with household duties and work on the farm by age nine. Women of this time spent many hours at home and away from their husbands. Labor Jobs seemed to be an excellent job during the right season. The Cowboy and the migrant worker; Mexicans, Chinese, and even African Americans would round up cattle. In return of the labor of walking thousands of miles and herding asss of cattle they would get paid a hefty amount of money. There were about 25% of black cowboys that would work as Cowboys during the years of 1870-1885. Some African Americans were so skilled that one particularly Bill Pickett being called the Greatest Cowboy winning competitions with the reputation of his tricks and stunts. Many of these cowboys during this time were making a lot of money. With the money that they would make they would often go Into town and spend or blow their money on working women. Many women now have en tired of working in the home and not feeling respected. They were tired of not being paid the amount they felt was necessary to survive. Many teens and younger unmarried women would work the streets and be paid per visit by another man, usually a cowboy. Women that were predominantly In the Mexican communities were quickly entering a new era close to the end of the century. Selling produce, working as seamstresses and laundresses was how they were able to make ends meet. However, It was shortly after when women lost status wealth the community. Mexicans found fewer options and quickly they were making below what was average pay for that time. Even though these times were tough, Mexicans still manage to preserve their heritage and religious beliefs which kept their community and heritage growing and strong. Although it appears that women mainly stayed at home, there was a portion of the population where the women fought just as hard as the men. These women built reputations of being the wildest of them all. With a quo KC craw or Just as Drive as a man, teen would ROR Tanks or ROR ten roll to gain power and support of their needs for their families. Some women were so talented that they were able to travel and put on shows like Anne Oakley. This was the new rend of what was consider a win in the war. There was entertainment and celebrations of Winning of the West. At the turn of the century, many American imagined this land as a promise for opportunities. Even with this positive movement, there were still many outlaws that fled towns and caused havoc. The outlaws played another percentage in history that included Women to be involved in. These women were also outlaws and running from the law taking their families and traveling state to state once they feared of being caught. Overall, women were still not as respected and times were still ahead of fighting to have be treated more equal.

Analysis Tools Unit 5 IP Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Analysis Tools Unit 5 IP - Research Paper Example George Scott founded the non-profit in 1987 and it became the area’s largest provider of student housing; second only to the college dormitories (Dominick, 2012).Scott and his wife obtained a $13 million lease purchase on a building in New York and opened its doors to college students. In 2002, Scott formed a second company, Student Services Inc. which expanded support services to students to include cable, phone and Internet services. Student Services became an outlet to transfer funds from Educational Services through excessive invoices. The non-profit’s board of directors was responsible for reviewing the financials for Educational Housing Services; however, somewhere along the way the checks and balances ceased to happen. Annual Revenue & Expenses Financial information on GuideStar is either digitized from Form 990 images we receive from the IRS or submitted by the nonprofits themselves through the GuideStar Exchange (990 filers cannot override Form 990 financial data). If your organization does not file a Form 990, 990-EZ, or 990-PF and you would like to have your financial data displayed in this section, join the GuideStar Exchange today! Million in a restitution settlement. â€Å"Siphoning millions of dollars at the expense of college students is deplorable,† Attorney General Eric T. Schneiderman said in a statement. â€Å"We have no tolerance for officers and directors who treat a nonprofit organization as a vehicle for personal enrichment† (Dolnick, 2012). The Board of Directors was also cited for excessive salaries and negligent accounting methods. Educational Housing Services is now a private company with 24 years in the business. Scott could have kept a separate private corporation for his personal ambitions. Since the original venture became such a helpful success to himself and to so many others, it would have been wise to keep the books the way they were. There was nothing to prevent him from pursuing

Global business venture Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Global business venture - Research Paper Example The battery life is the same 10 hours as of it predecessor. This iconic tablet is available in two colours, black or white, and supports HDMI output using a separate cable. It has front-facing cams with the traditional rear camera and a few cool accessories offered first time by Apple (Apple iPad, 2012). Till now, the product has been launched in many different counties but not in Japan. The other products of Apple have been successfully launched in Japan previously. Therefore Apple Incorporation is now planning to introduce iPad 2 in Japan. For this purpose government, political and economic analysis was carried out. Japans government is a constitutional monarchy and has a parliamentary government. Sovereignty, previously embodied in the emperor, is vested in the Japanese people, and The Emperor is the symbol of the state with sovereignty bestowed to the people of the country. Cabinet composes of Prime Minister and State Ministers and holds the executive power. The members of the cabinet must all be civilians and the power to appoint and remove state minister lies with the prime minister. The judiciary here is independent, with judicial system being drawn from civil law, customary law and Anglo-American common law. The final judicial authority is with the Supreme Court, though there are several levels of courts. The Japanese constitution includes a bill of rights similar to the U.S. Bill of Rights, and the Supreme Court has the right of judicial review. The court verdicts are made in accord with legal statutes. Since the 1980’s Japan has faced political instability. To put Japan back on the path of vibrant growth, the nations tax system was changed; there was a cut in corporate tax and a hike in sales tax, to escape sovereign debt crisis. There were a few other changes in government policies to attract investors towards Japan which had given positive outcomes (Takenaka, 2010). The free-market economy of Japan is the third-largest economy in

4 Discussions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

4 Discussions - Essay Example The women were also allowed to read books, but they were restricted to read some books and avoid others. According to the ‘cult of domesticity’, women were given ‘separate but equal’ status. Like men, they were assigned some tasks to perform, but they were of different nature. Women were not allowed to choose their life partners and after their marriage, their lives were designed as per their family needs. Marriages meant chained status for women (Zinn). The cult of domesticity introduced women to their equal status in society that was quite different, but in fact, in this manner women became aware of their subordinate status in the society. They were not allowed to vote and to possess property. In addition, if they were required to work outside their homes, they received one fourth of the wages that men obtained. They were also restricted not to join certain professions such as law and medicine. Therefore, cult of domesticity was not a way of pacifying her with a doctrine of separate but equal, but to inform her about her restrictions and limitations according to which, she should lead her life. She was expected to lead her life as per the proper codes of conduct designed for her. She enjoyed little or no liberty and was to remain passive and submissive to patriarchal system of the society. For becoming a perfect woman, she was to acquire the qualities of submissiveness and domesticity (Zinn). The role of wife and mother in America as well as in other parts of the world still undergoes certain restrictions because there are certain norms and standards, according to which, a wife and a mother are required to act. Male members of out society have always kept certain expectations with women and their roles in the society. A woman is not accepted with everything, as she is required to bring changes in her personality

Solar energy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Solar energy - Essay Example Organizations and industry likewise utilize these technologies to broaden their energy sources, enhance productivity, and recovery cash. Sun based photovoltaic and concentrating sun powered force technologies are likewise being utilized by engineers and utilities to process power on a monstrous scale to power urban communities and residential areas. Sun powered force is generated by gathering daylight and changing over it into power. This is carried out by utilizing sun powered boards, which are vast even boards made up of numerous singular sunlight based cells. It is frequently utilized as a part of remote areas, in spite of the fact that it is getting to be more famous in urban territories too. This page holds articles that investigate propels in sunlight based energy engineering. Numerous individuals are acquainted with supposed photovoltaic cells, or sun powered boards, found on things like space apparatus, housetops, and handheld adding machines. The cells are made of semiconductor materials like those found in PC chips. The point when daylight hits the units, it thumps electrons detached from their molecules. As the electrons course through the unit, they produce power. On a much bigger scale, sunlight based warm power plants utilize different strategies to think the suns energy as a high temperature source. The high temperature is then used to bubble water to drive a steam turbine that produces power in much the same form as coal and atomic force plants, supplying power for many individuals. Sun powered energy is praised as a limitless fuel source that is contamination and regularly commotion free. The engineering is likewise flexible. For instance, sun based units produce energy for far-out spots like satellites in Earth circle and lodges profound in the Rocky Mountains as effectively as they can control downtown edifices and cutting edge autos. However sun powered energy doesnt work

Trends in Supply Chain Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Trends in Supply Chain Management - Essay Example Thus, with reference to the current technological innovation, customers expect an efficient system that is both cost effective and reliable for commercial and private use. Operations within an individual market clog the morale of conducting business and restrict diversity therefore leading to reactive industries. With reference to international trade, various investors and product developers are able to develop and create products resembling the demands of the global customers (Green, Whitten, Inman, 2008). In addition, the use of specific strategies in some regions to manage costs, has transpired the trading of best practices leading, in some cases, to unified code of conduct within the logistics industry (Handfield, Straube, Pfohl, and Wieland, 2013). With reference to customer satisfaction, globalization creates interaction between various business blocs thus influencing the development, marketing, distribution, and sale of alternative products. The logistics industry comprises of a network of companies operating in both local and international sectors. These networks help to sustain the industry through the handling of segmented logistics’ service-tasks (Hanningan, & Mangan, 2001). The collapse of one segment in the network has the potential of interfering with global logistics operations. Following the trend of industries experiencing economic-crisis aftershock effects, research suggests that business blocs should loosen ties with volatile markets and implement strategies sustainable within a narrowed logistics’ environment (Florin, n.d). Green, K., Whitten, D., Inman, A. (2008). The Impact of Logistics Performance on Organization Performance in a Supply Chain Context. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, Vol 13, No. 4: pp. 317-327. Retrieved February 14, from Academic search complete. Hanningan, K., & Mangan, J. (2001). The Role of Logistics and Supply Chain Management in

Solar energy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Solar energy - Essay Example Organizations and industry likewise utilize these technologies to broaden their energy sources, enhance productivity, and recovery cash. Sun based photovoltaic and concentrating sun powered force technologies are likewise being utilized by engineers and utilities to process power on a monstrous scale to power urban communities and residential areas. Sun powered force is generated by gathering daylight and changing over it into power. This is carried out by utilizing sun powered boards, which are vast even boards made up of numerous singular sunlight based cells. It is frequently utilized as a part of remote areas, in spite of the fact that it is getting to be more famous in urban territories too. This page holds articles that investigate propels in sunlight based energy engineering. Numerous individuals are acquainted with supposed photovoltaic cells, or sun powered boards, found on things like space apparatus, housetops, and handheld adding machines. The cells are made of semiconductor materials like those found in PC chips. The point when daylight hits the units, it thumps electrons detached from their molecules. As the electrons course through the unit, they produce power. On a much bigger scale, sunlight based warm power plants utilize different strategies to think the suns energy as a high temperature source. The high temperature is then used to bubble water to drive a steam turbine that produces power in much the same form as coal and atomic force plants, supplying power for many individuals. Sun powered energy is praised as a limitless fuel source that is contamination and regularly commotion free. The engineering is likewise flexible. For instance, sun based units produce energy for far-out spots like satellites in Earth circle and lodges profound in the Rocky Mountains as effectively as they can control downtown edifices and cutting edge autos. However sun powered energy doesnt work

Homoeostasis Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Homoeostasis - Case Study Example Any fluctuation in the blood glucose concentration is detected by the pancreas, which in turn responds by secreting insulin. The secreted insulin increases the conversion of glucose to glycogen. As a result, Mary’s blood glucose concentration reduces (IHW 2006). Trekking causes excess loss of water from the body in the form of sweat. As a result, the osmolality of the blood plasma rises. The increasing osmolality (stimulus) of the plasma is detected by the hypothalamus (receptor/coordinating center), triggering the secretion of ADH. ADH (effector) causes the opening of aquaporin channels in the collecting ducts of the kidney. In the process, more water is reabsorbed from the urine into the bloodstream. The reabsorption of more water (response) reduces the osmolality of the plasma. However, if alcohol is ingested, it inhibits the secretion of ADH, making the aquaporin channels to close. As a result, the body loses more water in the form of dilute urine (MMHE n.d., p. 1192). Since Jason had put on a short sleeve shirt, the peripheral nerve receptors in his skin detected the surrounding temperature and relayed an appropriate message to the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus in turn stimulated his skeletal muscles, causing him to shiver. Although the shivering generated heat by friction, it was not sufficient to normalize Jason’s body temperature. However, when Jason decided to run, the activity in his muscles intensified and generated sufficient heat to keep him warm. As a result, the shivering stopped because his body had gained the necessary heat (Docherty & Foudy 2006, p. 20). Dampney, RAL, et al. (2006). Central mechanisms underlying short-term and long-term regulation of the cardiovascular system. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11985533 [Accessed 11 December

Students in AP World History Essay Example for Free

Students in AP World History Essay Students in AP World History are expected to be able to write three different types of essays: a document-based question (or DBQ), a change-over-time essay, and a comparative essay. You can probably gather from the names what you need to do in each essay – the document-based question provides you with a set of documents on which to base your essay; the change-over-time essay asks you to analyze the changes and continuities that occurred within a certain period of time; and the comparative essay asks you to compare and contrast two episodes, cultures, religions, or other historical phenomenon from a given period. Writing a thesis for an AP World History essay is a little different from other theses you may have learned to write in English or Oral Communications. Luckily, there is a basic format you can use for each of the three essays. The key to writing a good AP World History essay is to tell the reader what you are going to talk about before you talk about it. The AP World History Exam refers to this as your thesis. The scoring rubric (the guidelines readers use to score your essays) requires readers to answer the following questions about each of your essays: †¢ Do you have a comprehensive, analytical, and explicit thesis? †¢ Is your thesis acceptable? So how does a person write a comprehensive, analytical, and explicit thesis? What needs to be included? What is an â€Å"acceptable† thesis and what is an â€Å"unacceptable† thesis? Put simply, an analytical thesis will use specific details that will allow the reader to understand exactly what you are talking about. A good thesis is never just one sentence; it is a group of statements. Therefore, you will start with a general sentence, but you have to then follow it up with additional sentences that provide all the necessary elements described above. Together, these statements must †¢ restate the prompt and define terms, context, and chronology of events under discussion †¢ address each part of the question (include both a similarity and a difference or both a continuity and a change) †¢ Make a transition statement to the body of the essay with a sentence like â€Å"The historical evidence would indicate that † A strong analytical thesis will serve as a â€Å"road map† for the remainder of your essay and show the reader that you are on target with answering the question. The Prompt Each AP World History Essay exam will have a prompt, or question, that you will write on. An example of a prompt would be this: Compare the economic, social, and political characteristics of ancient Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. The first thing to remember is that when it says â€Å"compare,† what the prompt really means is for you to both â€Å"compare† and â€Å"contrast. † AP exam readers will expect you to know this! You will need to note both similarities and differences. The Thesis The first sentence of your thesis should be a restatement of the prompt. Before you begin writing, you should first underline important information in the prompt. In the sample above, you would want to underline the words social, political, economic, ancient, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. You will then use those words to create the first sentence of your thesis. Here is how that might look: â€Å"Two ancient civilizations, Mesopotamia and Egypt, created complex societies with distinct social, political, and economic characteristics. † The second sentence of your thesis should address both a similarity and a difference. You will simply list them in the thesis. Do not analyze them. Save them for analysis later in your paper. Here is how your second sentence might look: â€Å"One similarity is that both civilizations developed strong economies based on trade with other cultures. One difference is that the Mesopotamians traded with people across the Indian Ocean in South Asia, while the Egyptians traded with their neighbors to the south in Nubia. † The third and final sentence of your thesis should be the transition into your essay. It is here that you will help your reader get from your introduction into the bulk of what you have to say. Here is how your third sentence might look: â€Å"â€Å"The historical evidence would indicate that the two civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt had some subtle differences, but were, for the most part, nearly identical. †

Microwave Remote Sensing in Forestry

Microwave Remote Sensing in Forestry BACKGROUND: Microwave remote sensing at wavelengths ranging from 1 cm to 1 m has gained a lot of importance over the past decade for a wide range of scientific applications with the availability of active radar imaging systems. Its potential in spatial applications has been scientifically established in various sectors like forestry, agriculture, land use and land cover, geology and hydrology. A variety of applications have been carried out world over using microwave data like discrimination of crop types, crop condition monitoring, soil moisture retrieval, delineation of forest openings, estimation of forest above ground biomass, forest mapping; forest structure and fire scar mapping, geological mapping, monitoring wetlands and snow cover, sea ice identification, coastal windfield measurement, wave slope measurement, ship detection, shoreline detection, substrate mapping, slick detection and general vegetation mapping (Kasischke et al., 1997). There is an emerging interest on microwave remote sensing, as microwave sensors can image a surface with very fine resolution of a few meters to coarse resolution of a few kilometers. They provide imagery to a given resolution independently of altitude, limited only by the transmitter power available. Fundamental parameters like polarization and look angle can be varied to optimize the system for a specific application. SAR imaging is independent of solar illumination as the system provides its own source of illumination. It can operate independently of weather conditions if sufficiently long wavelengths are chosen. It operates in a band of electromagnetic spectrum different from the bands used by visible and infrared (IR) imageries. Microwave applications in Forestry Applications of microwave remote sensing in forestry have also been reported during the recent past. Recent reviews on the application of radar in forestry show that SAR systems have a good capability in discriminating various types of (tropical) forest cover using multi-temporal and multi-frequency SAR data (Vander Sanden, 1997; Varekamp, 2001; Quinones, 2002; Sgrenzaroli, 2004). These studies showed that the biomass dependence of radar backscatter varies as a function of radar wavelength, polarization and incidence angle. Also recent studies have demonstrated that synthetic aperture radar (SAR) can be used to estimate above-ground standing biomass. To date, these studies have relied on extensive ground-truth measurements to construct relationships between biomass and SAR backscatter (Steininger, 1996; Rignot et al., 1997). Many studies demonstrated the use of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) remote sensing to retrieve biophysical characteristics from forest targets (Richards, 1990). Although radar backscatter from forest is influenced by their structural properties (Imhoff, 1995), earlier studies derived useful relationships between backscattering coefficients and the above-ground biomass (Baker et., 1994; Le Toan et al., 1992; Dobson et el., 1992; Imhoff; 1995). These relationships may provide a method of monitoring forest ecosystems which play such a vital role in carbon storage and NPP. Microwave remote sensing has the advantage of all weather capability coverage overcoming the persistent problem of cloud cover in satellite images like in optical data. Optical remote sensing is being used very successfully in various applications related to earth resources studies and monitoring of the environment. However, optical remote sensing is not suitable for all atmospheric conditions. It cannot penetrate through clouds and haze. In many areas of the world, the frequent cloud conditions often restrain the acquisition of high-quality remotely sensed data by optical sensors. Thus, radar data has become the only feasible way of acquiring remotely sensed data within a given time framework because the radar systems can collect Earth feature data irrespective of weather or light conditions. Due to this unique feature of radar data compared with optical sensor data, the radar data have been used extensively in many fields, including forest-cover identification and mapping, discrimi nation of forest compartments and forest types, estimation of forest stand parameters and monitoring of forests. In areas where vegetation cover is dense, it visually covers the underlying formation and it is very difficult to detect structural limiting the use of optical sensors. Radar however, is sensitive enough to topographic variation that it is able to discern the structural expression reflected in the tree top canopy, and therefore the structure may be clearly defined on the radar imagery. Based on this background, the current thesis work has been carried out to explore the potential of microwave data in addressing core areas of tropical forestry viz., vegetation classification, above ground biomass estimation etc., and to provide the users/researchers a meaningful data base of SAR applications in tropical forestry, specifically over the India region. Research questions: Which SAR wavelength/frequency band is appropriate for vegetation classification in tropical forests? To what extent above ground biomass can be measured in tropical forests? Which frequency band and polarization are suitable for above ground biomass estimation? Is there any enhancement in vegetation classification with polarimetric / interferometric data than stand alone amplitude data? Research hypothesis: Based on the previous studies and earlier mentioned research questions, we understand that the backscatter increases with the increase in above ground biomass and depends on wavelength bands, polarizations used and on the study area, topographic variations and species composition. So, the present study attempts to derive the application potential of airborne and space borne SAR data in the quantification of the forest resources in tropical regions like India, both as a complementary and supplementary role to optical datasets. Different techniques such as Regression analysis, multi-sensor fusion, texture measures and interferometric coherence characterize different biomass ranges of the test sites and classification of major land cover classes. This study would facilitate scope for future research in tropical regions to explore the potentials of SAR data in land cover classification and above ground biomass estimation using the polarimetric and interferometric techniques. OBJECTIVES: Based on this background, the present study aims at the following objectives: Vegetation type classification using polarimetric and interferometric SAR data. Forest above-ground biomass estimation using multi-frequency SAR data and ground inventoried data. Vegetation classification is necessary to understand the diversity of species in a given area which gives above ground biomass with measured parameters. Hence, vegetation classification enhances the estimation of the above ground biomass. Forest biomass is a key parameter in understanding the carbon cycle and determining rates of carbon storage, both of which are large uncertainties for forest ecosystems. Accurate knowledge of biophysical parameters of the ecosystems is essential to develop an understanding of the ecosystem and their interactions, to provide input models of ecosystem and global processes, to test these models and to monitor changes in ecosystem dynamics and processes over time. Thus, it is a useful measure for assessing changes in forest structure, comparing structural and functional attributes of forest ecosystems across a wide range of environmental conditions. Knowing the spatial distribution of forest biomass is important as the knowledge of biomass is required for calculating the sources and sinks of carbon that result from converting a forest to cleared land and vice versa, to know the spatial distribution of biomass which enables measurement of change through time. Field sampling is the most followed conventional method for vegetation type classification. The identification of different species in field yields good results in the estimation of the above ground biomass. It is very time consuming, expensive and very complicated. With the use of multiple sensors, varied data collection and interpretation techniques, remote sensing is a versatile tool that can provide data about the surface of the earth to suit any need (Reene et al, 2001). Remote sensing approach for vegetation classification is cost effective and also time effective. Though the identification of the tree species is possible only from the aerial imagery, major forest types can be identified from the airborne and the spaceborne remote sensing data. Visual image interpretation provides a feasible means of vegetation classification in forests. The image characteristics of shape, size, pattern, shadow, tone and texture are used by interpreters in tree species identification. Phenological correlations are useful in tree species identification. Changes in the appearance of trees in different seasons of the year some times enable discrimination of species that are indistinguishable on single dates. The use of multi-temporal remote sensing data enabl es the mapping of the different forest types. SAR has shown its potential for classifying and monitoring geophysical parameters both locally and globally. Excellent works were carried out on the classification using several approaches such as polarimetric data decomposition (Lee et al., 1998), knowledge based approaches considering the theoretical backscatter modeling and experimental observations ( Ramson and Sun , 1994) ; Backscatter model-related inversion approaches ( Kurvonen et al., 1999), neural networks and data fusion approaches ( Chen et al., 1996). Dong et al. (2001) have shown that the classification accuracy of 95% for the vegetation classes could be achieved through the segmentation and classification of the SAR data using Gaussian Markov Random Field Model (GMRF). Many methods have been employed for classification of polarimetric SAR data, based on the maximum likelihood (ML) (Lee et al. 1994), artificial neural network (NN) (Chen et al. 1996, Ito and Omatu, 1998), support vector machines (SVMs) (Fukuda et al. 2002), fuzzy method (Chen et al. 2003, Du and Lee 1996), or other approaches (Kong et al. 1988, Lee and Hoppel 1992, van Zyl and Burnette 1992, Cloude and Pottier 1997, Lee et al. 1999, Alberqa 2004) Among these methods, the ML classifier (Lee et al. 1994) can be employed for obtaining accurate classification results, but it is based on the assumption of the complex Wishart distribution of the covariance matrix. Assessing the total aboveground biomass of forests (biomass density when expressed as dry weight per unit area at a particular time) is a useful way of quantifying the amount of resource available for all traditional uses. It either gives the quantity of total biomass directly or the quantity by each component (e.g., leaves, branches, and bole) because their biomass tends to vary systematically with the total biomass. However, biomass of each component varies with total biomass by forest type, such as natural or planted forests and closed or open forests. For example, leaves contribute about 3-5% and merchantable bole is about 60% of the total aboveground biomass of closed forests. Many researchers have developed various methods based on field inventory and remote sensing approaches for the estimation of above ground biomass (Kira and Ogawa, 1971). Traditionally, field-measured approach is considered as the most accurate source for above-ground biomass estimation. It has been converted to volume, or biomass, using allometric equations that are based on standard field measurements (tree height and diameter at breast height). Different approaches, based on field measurement (Brown et al. 1989, Brown and Iverson 1992, Schroeder et al.. 1997, Houghton et al., 2001, Brown, 2002); remote sensing (Tiwari 1994, Roy and Ravan 1996, Tomppo et al., 2002, Foody et al., 2003, Santos et al., 2003, Zheng et al., 2004, Lu, 2005); and GIS (Brown and Gaston 1995) have been applied for AGB estimation. Traditional techniques based on field measurement are the most accurate ways for collecting biomass data. A sufficient number of field measurements is a prerequisite for developing AGB estimation models and for evaluating the AGB estimation results. However, these approaches are often time consuming, labour intensive, and difficult to implement, especially in remote areas and are generally limited to 10-year intervals. Also, they cannot provide the spatial distribution of biomass in large areas. For the above reasons, the perspectives of using remote sensing techniques to estimate forest biomass have gained interest. Remote sensing data available at different scales, from local to global, and from various sources, optical to microwave are expected to provide information that could be related indirectly, and in different manners, to biomass information. The possibility that aboveground forest biomass might be determined from space is a promising alternative to ground-based methods (Hese et al., 2005). The advantages of remotely sensed data, such as in repetivity of data collection, synoptic view, digital format that allows fast processing of large quantities of data, and the high correlations between spectral bands and vegetation parameters, make it the primary source for large area AGB estimation, especially in areas of difficult access. Therefore, remote sensing-based AGB estimation has increasingly attracted scientific interest. In general, AGB can be estimated using remotely sensed data with different approaches, such as multiple regression analysis, K nearest-neighbour, and neural network (Roy and Ravan 1996, Nelson et al. 2000a, Steininger 2000, Foody et al. 2003, Zheng et al. 2004), and indirectly estimated from canopy parameters, such as crown diameter, which are first derived from remotely sensed data using multiple regression analysis or different canopy reflectance models (Wu and Strahler 1994, Woodcock et al. 1997, Phua and Saito 2003, Popescu et al. 2003). Spectral signatures or vegetation indices are often used for AGB estimation in optical remote sensing. Many vegetation indices have been developed and applied to biophysical parameter studies (Anderson and Hanson 1992, Anderson et al. 1993, Eastwood et al. 1997, Lu et al. 2004, Mutanga and Skidmore 2004). Vegetation indices have been recommended to remove variability caused by canopy geometry, soil background, sun view angles, and atmospheric conditions when measuring biophysical properties (Elvidge and Chen 1995, Blackburn and Steele 1999). Radar remote sensing has potential to provide information on above ground biomass. The information content of SAR data in terms of the retrieval of biomass parameters will be assessed based on an understanding of the underlying scattering mechanisms, which in turn are derived from observations and modeling results. For this purpose, an analysis of data acquired by multiple frequency, incidence and polarisation systems and by interferometric systems is carried out. It has been proved that the sensitivity to biomass parameters differ strongly at different frequencies, polarisations and incidence angles. In general, long wavelength SAR backscatter (P and L band) is more sensitive to forest biomass than shorter wavelength C-band backscatter and the relationships saturate at certain biomass levels ( Imhoff 1995b). The strength of the relationships and the saturation levels are dependent on the type of forest being analysed (Ferrazoli et al. 1997). The saturation levels for the estimation of above ground biomass depend on the wavelengths (i.e. different bands, such as C, L, P), polarization (such as HV and VV), and the characteristics of vegetation stand structure and ground conditions. C-band can measure forestry biomass up to app. 50 tons/ha, L-band can measure up to 100 tons/ha and P-band can measure up to 200 tons/ha (Floyd et al., 1998). The combination of multiple channels and polarizations provides greater advantage for estimating total biomass (Harry Stern, 1998). RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY: The present study is the part of Radar Imaging satellite Joint Experiment Programme (RISAT-JEP) for forestry applications undertaken by Forestry and Ecology Division of National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), as a pilot campaign with specific objectives of above ground biomass estimation and vegetation type classification using airborne DLR (German Aerospace Center) carrying ESAR (Experimental Synthetic Aperture Radar) data for Rajpipla (Gujarat) study site and space borne ENVISAT (Environmental Satellite) carrying Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) data for three test sites viz., Rajpipla (Gujarat), Dandeli (Karnataka) and Bilaspur (Chattisgarh), India. SCOPE OF THE STUDY: The specific objectives of the present study are above ground biomass estimation and vegetation type classification using airborne DLR (German Aerospace Center) carrying ESAR (Experimental Synthetic Aperture Radar) data for Rajpipla (Gujarat) study site and space borne ENVISAT (Environmental Satellite) carrying Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar (ASAR) data; ALOS (Advanced Land Observing Satellite) carrying Phased Array L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) for three test sites viz., Rajpipla (Gujarat), Dandeli (Karnataka) and Bilaspur (Chattisgarh), India. Different techniques such as Regression analysis, multi-sensor fusion, texture measures and interferometric coherence were used to characterize different biomass ranges of the test sites and to classify the major land cover classes using spaceborne C-band ENVISAT-ASAR data and L-band ALOS- PALSAR data. Polarimetric signatures, polarimetric decompositions, multi-sensor fusion techniques etc. were used for the classification of different vegetation types in the Rajpipla study area using the airborne DLR-ESAR data. The study has its uniqueness and gains importance in the application potential of SAR interferometry over tropical regions like India, both in terms of an alternate/substitute to optical data sets due to persisting cloud cover and to the lack of availability of any earlier scientific work over the study region. This study is useful for the applications of to be launched Radar Imaging Satellite (RISAT) in 2010. The study has amply demonstrated the application potential of airborne and space borne SAR data in the quantification of the forest resources in tropical regions like India, both as a complementary and supplementary role to optical datasets. The study would facilitate future research in tropical regions to explore the potentials of SAR data in land cover classification and above ground biomass estimation using the polarimetric and interferometric techniques. LITERATURE SURVEY: During the last decade, many potential applications of SAR in different frequency bands have been studied for forestry applications using data acquired by both airborne and space-borne systems. Various techniques like Polarimetry, Interferometry and Polarimetric-Interferometry enhanced the use of SAR data in forestry applications. The backscatter from vegetation is used to infer information about amplitude data for forest cover mapping and estimation of above ground biomass in regenerating forests. Use of SAR polarimetric data delineated vegetation classes within the forest and also enhanced the capability in estimating the above ground biomass. The use of repeat pass interferometric data enables to calculate the forest stand height and also used for the land cover classification. The emerging Pol-InSAR technique is used to derive the three dimensional forest structures. Forest cover maps were prepared for the boreal, temperate and tropical forests using SAR data. Forest was separated from non-forest regions using multi-temporal C-band ERS SAR data on the test sites of United Kingdom, Poland and Finland (Quegan et al., 2000). The study applied a threshold value to separate forest from other classes. Tropical rainforest of Borneo was mapped from SIR-B data of different incidence angles (Ford and Casey, 1988). Different vegetation covers along with wetlands and clear-cut areas were distinguished. Forest cover mapping was done with JERS-1 SAR data on the coastal regions of Gabon (Simard et al., 2000). The study used decision tree method utilizing both radar amplitude and texture information. Forest cover map was prepared for Southern Chittagong using JERS-1 SAR data (Rahman and Sumantyo, 2007) and the study separated forest, degraded forest, shrubs, coastal plantations, agriculture, shrimp-farms, urban and water. Although radar backscatter from forest is influenced by their structural properties (Imhoff, 1995a), many studies have demonstrated useful relationships between backscattering coefficients and the areal density of above-ground biomass within particular types of forest (Baker et., 1994; Le Toan et al., 1992; Dobson et al., 1992; Imhof et al; 1995b). Many airborne and spaceborne SAR systems have been used to carry out a large amount of experiments for investigating the forest ecosystems. The airborne systems, such as the NASA/JPL AIRSAR, DLR-ESAR, etc., operating at P, L and C band, has been flown over many forest sites (Zebker et al., 1991; Le Toan et al, 1992; Beaudoin et al., 1994; Rignot et al.; 1994; Skriver et al., 1994; Ranson et al., 1996). The experiments of the Canadian CV-580, as well as the European airborne system, mainly operating at C and X band also have been carried out in North America and Europe (Drieman et al., 1989; Hoekman, 1990). Spaceborne SAR is being used from regional to global monitoring in a periodic basis. The spaceborne systems, such as the Seasat SAR, SIR-B, SIR-C/X-SAR and ERS-1, ERS-2, ENVISAT-ASAR, RADARSAT etc., were used for investigations of boreal, temperature and sub-tropical forestry test sites (Ford et al., 1988; Dobson et al., 1992; Ranson et al., 1995; Stofan et al., 1995; Rignotet al., 1995). These experiments and studies have shown that radar is sensitive to forest structural parameters such as diameter at breast height (dbh) and tree mean height including above-ground biomass (Dobson et al., 1992; Pulliainen et al., 1994; Skriver et al., 1994; Ferrazzoli et al., 1995; Ranson et al., 1996). Earlier studies has shown the potential of radar data in estimating AGB (Hussin et al. 1991, Ranson and Sun 1994, Dobson et al. 1995, Rignot et al. 1995, Saatchi and Moghaddam 1995, Foody et al. 1997, Harrell et al. 1997, Ranson et al. 1997, Luckman et al. 1997, 1998, Pairman et al. 1999, Imhoff et al. 2000, Kuplich et al. 2000, Castel et al. 2002, Sun et al. 2002, Santos et al. 2003, Treuhaft et al. 2004). Kasischke et al. (1997) reviewed radar data for ecological applications, including AGB estimation. Lucas et al. (2004) and Kasischke et al. (2004) reviewed SAR data for AGB estimation in tropical forests and temperate and boreal forests, respectively. Different wavelength radar data have their own characteristics in relating to forest stand parameters. Backscatter in P and L bands is highly correlated with major forest parameters, such as tree age, tree height, DBH, basal area, and AGB (Leckie 1998). In particular, SAR L-band data have proven to be valuable for AGB estimation (Sad er 1987, Luckman et al. 1997, Kurvonen et al. 1999, Sun et al. 2002). However, low or negligible correlations were found between SAR C-Band backscatter and AGB (Le Toan et al. 1992). Beaudoin et al. (1994) found that the HH return was related to both trunk and crown biomass, and the VV and HV returns were linked to crown biomass. Harrell et al. (1997) evaluated four techniques for AGB estimation in pine stands using SIR C- and L-Band multi-polarization radar data and found that the L-Band HH polarization data were the critical elements in AGB estimation. Kuplich et al. (2000) used L-band JERS-1/SAR data for AGB estimation of regenerating forests and concluded that these data had the potential to estimate AGB for young, regenerating forests. Sun et al. (2002) found that multi-polarization L-Band SAR data were useful for AGB estimation of forest stands in mountainous areas. Castel et al. (2002) identified the significant relationships between the backscatter coefficient of JERS- 1/SAR data and the stand biomass of a pine plantation. The study observed the improvement in AGB estimation results for young stands, compared to estimation for old stands. Santos et al. (2002) used JERS-1 SAR data to analyse the relationships between backscatter signals and biomass of forest and savanna formations. This study concluded that forest structural-physiognomic characteristics and the radars volume scattering, double bounce scattering are two important factors affecting these relationships. The saturation levels of backscattering co-efficient with respect to AGB depend on the wavelengths (i.e. different Bands, such as C, L, P), polarization (such as HV and VV), and the characteristics of vegetation stand structure and ground conditions. Luckman et al. (1997) found that the longer-wavelength (L-Band) SAR image was more suitable to discriminate different levels of forest biomass up to a certain threshold, indicating that it is suitable for estimating biomass of regenerating forests in tropical regions. Austin et al. (2003) indicated that forest biomass estimation using radar data may be feasible when landscape characteristics are taken into account. The radar backscattering coefficient is correlated with forest biomass and stem volume (Le Toan et al. 1992, Israelsson et al. 1994, Kasischke et al. 1994, Dobson et al. 1995). The sensitivity of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data to forest stem volume increases significantly as the radar wavelength increases (Israelsson et al. 1997). The imaging process makes SAR suitable for mapping parameters related to forest biomass, like stem volume (Baker et al, 1999; Fransson et al, 1999; Hyyppa et al, 1997; Israelsson et al., 1997; Kurvonen et al, 1999; Pulliainen et al, 1996), total growing stock (Balzter et al, 2000; Schmullius et al, 1997), LAI (Imhoff et al, 1997), or above ground net primary productivity (Bergen et al, 1998). Le Toan et al., (1992) used multi-polarisation L- and P-band airborne radar data, and found that the dynamic range of the radar backscatter corresponded highly with forest growth stages and is maximum at P-band HV polarization. The analysis of P-band data indicated a good correlation between the radar backscatter intensity and the main forest parameters including trunk biomass, height, age, diameter at breast height (dbh), and basal area. Dobson et al., (1992) showed an increasing range of backscatter with changing biomass from C to P-band, as well as higher biomass levels at which backscatter relationships to biomass saturate. Hoekman, (1990) found poor relationships between X- and C-band backscatter and volume and other stand parameters. The spaceborne systems, such as the Seasat SAR, SIR-B, SIR-C/X-SAR and ERS-1, ERS-2, JERS, ENVISAT-ASAR and recently ALOS-PALSAR etc. were used for investigations of boreal, temperature and sub-tropical forestry test sites (Ford et al., 1988; Dobson et al., 1992; Ranson et al., 1995; Stofan et al., 1995; Rignot et al., 1995). These experiments and studies have shown that radar is sensitive to forest structural parameters including above-ground biomass (Dobson et al., 1992; Pulliainen et al., 1994; Skriver et al., 1994; Ferrazzoli et al., 1995; Ranson et al., 1996). Kasischke et al., (1997) reviewed radar data for ecological applications, including AGB estimation. It is being reported in literature that the radar backscatter in the P and L bands is highly correlated with major forest parameters, such as tree age, tree height, DBH, basal area, and AGB. In particular, SAR L-Band data have proven to be valuable for AGB estimation (Sader, 1987; Luckman et al., 1997; Kurvonen et al., 1999; Sun et al., 2002). Kuplich et al., (2000) used JERS-SAR data for AGB estimation of regenerating forests and concluded that these data had the potential to estimate AGB for young, regenerating forests. Luckman et al., (1997) found that the longer-wavelength (L-Band) SAR image was more suitable to discriminate different levels L-Band backscatter shows no sensitivity to increased biomass density after a certain threshold, such as 100 tons ha-1, indicating that it is suitable for estimating biomass of regenerating forests in tropical regions. The radar backscattering coefficient is correlated with forest biomass and stem volume (Le Toan et al. 1992; Israelsson et al., 1994; Kasischke et al., 1994, Dobson et al., 1995). The sensitivity of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data to forest stem volume increases significantly as the radar wavelength increases (Israelsson et al., 1997). The imaging process makes SAR suitable for mapping parameters related to forest biomass, like stem volume (Baker et al., 1999; Israelsson et al., 1997; Pulliainen et al., 1996), total growing stock (Balzter et al., 2000; Schmullius et al., 1997), LAI (Imhoff et al., 1997), or above ground net primary productivity (Bergen et al., 1998). The dependency of backscatter on above ground biomass was observed and related to the penetration of the radiation into the canopy and interaction with the trunk, where most of the volume, therefore, biomass of the vegetation is concentrated (Sader 1987, Le Toan et al. 1992, Dobson et al. 1992). HV polarization in longer wavelengths (L or P band) is the most sensitive to above ground biomass (Sader 1987, Le Toan et al. 1992, Ranson et al. 1997a) because it originates mainly from canopy volume scattering (Wang et al. 1995), trunk scattering (Le Toan et al. 1992) and is less affected by the ground surface (Ranson and Sun 1994). As forest backscatter in different wavelengths and polarizations originate from separate layers of a canopy, the use of multiple channels or multi-step approaches (e.g., Dobson et al. 1995) could be used to estimate total above-ground biomass (Kasischke et al. 1997). Sun and Ranson (1994) estimated biomass in mixed conifer temperate forest upto 250 Mg/ha. Band ratios (HH/HV and VV/VH) were also used for the above ground biomass estimation. However, Dobson et al. (1995) considered these band ratios too simplistic (as the corresponding backscatter will be much higher for the few tall trees than for the many short ones), although effective in estimating biomass at higher ranges. In spite of this, a combination of bands and polarizations in a multi-step approach made possible the mapping of biomass in a mixed temperate forest upto 250 Mg/ha (Dobson et al. 1995). Establishing a strong link between backscatter and forest variables is an important part of the successful estimation of forest biomass from backscatter. Models are often used to explain the relationship between forest variables, scattering mechanisms and SAR configuration parameters (Richards 1990, Kasischke and Christensen 1990). Another approach is the use of statistical analysis, where forest variables are related to SAR backscatter by regression models (Sader 1987, Le Toan et al. 1992, Rauste et al. 1994). The combination of the two approaches, in most cases to assess the results of the predicted biomass or backscatter via regression (Ranson and Sun 1994, Ferrazzoli et al. 1997, Franson and Israelson 1999). Statistical procedures such as stepwise regression analysis were also used to determine the best set of bands and polarizations to discriminate biomass levels (Ranson et al. 1997a). The three-band (C, L, and P) polarimetric AIRSAR sensor has been used in many forest biomass studies (e.g., Green, 1998; Kasischke et al., 1991, 1995; Moghaddam et al., 1994; Ranson Sun, 1997). The strongest correlation between SAR backscatter and forest biomass has been reported in P-band and the weakest in C-band (e.g., Beaudoin et al., 1992; Dobson et al., 1992; Israelsson et al., 1992; Rauste et al., 1992;

Ensuring Truth Within Creative Nonfiction Essay -- Literary Analysis

The difference between creative nonfiction and fiction is unassuming: fiction is derived from the fabrications of an author’s imagination, whereas creative nonfiction is contingent on facts. A novelist has the freedom to create scenes which never existed, whereas an author of creative nonfiction must convey a truthful story. However, the line between creative nonfiction and fiction, fact and falsehood, has become ever so thin as â€Å"writers of memoir [have been] revealed to be frauds and fiction writers masquerade as memoirists in order to sell books† (Bradley 203). Recent events have revealed authors such as James Frey and Tim Barrus to have combined elements of fiction and nonfiction within their creative nonfiction books (Buck 56), further blurring this line. Overlooked embellishments and whole fabrications were found to exist within their alleged creative nonfiction works – stirring angst within the nonfiction community (Bradley 208). Allegations arose and investigations ensued, all revolving around the question: who is to blame? As a result, the entire creative nonfiction genre received negative publicity and harsh criticism (Bradley 203). For creative nonfiction to restore its legitimacy and veracity as a genre, authors, and not publishers, are to be held responsible for ensuring their creative nonfiction books are truthful. Creative nonfiction, often labeled the â€Å"fourth genre† (Bradley 203), requires the depiction of factual events and happenings through past memories, with a literary touch. Books under this genre include memoirs, biographies, and autobiographies. However, memory is malleable and fades. Hence, authors are given leeway in this respect and to be â€Å"truthful† is defined as an author recollecting and portraying p... ...ate to. For authors to deceive readers knowingly through a creative nonfiction medium is to rob readers of the intrinsic connection and empathy felt towards the story. The story becomes significantly less powerful and not as personally important to the reader. It is then dismissed as fiction, an untrue fairy tale once lost in the nonfiction realm. Writers of creative nonfiction books must then write truthfully to ensure creative nonfiction books are truthful. This is the only practical approach for the creation of true creative nonfiction books. Fact-checking is too onerous a practice when applied to the book publishing industry and avoids the inherent issue at hand: deceitful authors. For the fiction itself created by these authors is not the issue, but the deception, the robbing of unsuspecting readers, which has created this entire mess in the first place.

Jesus Prohibition Against Swearing and His Philosophy of Language :: Jesus Religion Language Prohibition Essays

Jesus' Prohibition Against Swearing and His Philosophy of Language In an article entitled "Oath Taking in the Community of the New Age (Matthew 5:33-37)," Don Garlington calls Jesus' prohibition against swearing an oddity and the avoidance of swearing by certain Christian sects a superficial application of the logion.[1] As a member of one such group, the Mennonites, I offer an apology rather than a rebutal. Mennonites make affirmations rather than swear oaths in order to fulfil Jesus' command often without wondering if they have fulfilled his intention. When they find rationale for their avoidance of oaths, they tend to point to swearing as an occasion for sin rather than something sinful in itself. According to the Mennonite Encyclopedia, one avoids swearing in order to avoid an inadvertant sin of error or the habit of lying when one is not under oath.[2] Both of these reasons for minding the prohibition can be extrapolated from the Matthean text, but neither explains why the act of swearing a truthful oath is from evil. In order to comprehend Jes us' intent, we need to examine Jesus' understanding of language as a human activty that is not always accompanied by mindfulness of the reality that makes it potent, possible, and meaningful. Given that modern usage of "to swear" has come to include the acts of cursing and of using colorful expletives, a definition based upon biblical usage is essential. An oath is a performative utterance; it does not describe something, it does something.[3] According to speech-act theory, an oath accomplishes a number of separate acts. First, it can either expound a view by making a statement of fact regarding past or present events or it can commit the speaker to an obligation in the future. The oath's power to expound or commit relies upon its capacity to execute a second speech-act, the act of invoking God or some divine authority as a witness or guarantor. Finally, the oath puts into place a third speech-act, a conditional curse. Zechariah illustrates the potential of the curse with the metaphor of the flying scroll that consumes the house of any one who swears falsely (Zech 5:1-4). The speech-act of cursing does not depend upon the locutionary act; whether the curse is articulated or not the deed is done.[4] If one's oath proves to be false, God is justified in enacting the curse.[5] Speech-act theorist John Austin describes how oaths can go wrong under the rubric of the doctrine of the infelicitous.

Talk Show Example Script

HIGHER SCORE TOEFL, TOEIC and IELTS classes for serious students How to Paraphrase Effectively Introduction â€Å"Paraphrase† is a verb which means to re-write a phrase or sentence with the same meaning but using different words. Paraphrasing is a very important skill for most English tests, including TOEFL iBT, IELTS and TOEIC Speaking and Writing. In TOEFL iBT, for instance, paraphrasing is an important skill in the reading section, in the listening section and, above all, in the speaking and writing sections of the test. Here is a quick example of paraphrasing using a phrase from the paragraph above: 1. Paraphrasing is a very important skill for most English tests. † 2. â€Å"For many tests of English, being skilful at paraphrasing is extremely important. † Notice how the paraphrased version (sentence 2) changes some vocabulary (e. g. , â€Å"extremely† for â€Å"very†), changes the word order (e. g. , â€Å"tests of English† for â€Å"Eng lish tests†) and changes the grammar (e. g. , â€Å"being skilful at paraphrasing†¦Ã¢â‚¬  for â€Å"Paraphrasing is a very important skill†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ) These are the three main ways to paraphrase and by combining all of these methods, you can achieve clear and accurate paraphrased sentences.The next sections will look at these methods in more detail. Paraphrasing Method 1: Use Different Vocabulary with the Same Meaning Most students try to use this method, but actually it can be difficult to use. The reason is that although English has many synonyms such as ‘large’ or ‘big’, it is unusual for these words to have exactly the same meaning. So, if you try to use a lot of synonyms when you paraphrase, you might produce sentences that are not natural English. Unnatural sentences are likely to reduce your score more than small mistakes because the reader may not understand what you are trying to say.For example, look at this original sentence and two paraphrased equivalents: 1. â€Å"It can be difficult to choose a suitable place to study English. † 2. â€Å"It is often a challenge to pick up (x) a relevant (x) school to learn English. † 3. â€Å"It is sometimes hard to select an appropriate place to learn English. † For non-native speakers, these three sentences might look like they have the same meaning. For native speakers, however, sentence 2 is unnatural. The first problem is â€Å"pick up†. This expression does NOT have the same meaning as â€Å"choose†, so this part of the paraphrased sentence is actually wrong.The second problem is the word â€Å"relevant†. In some cases, â€Å"relevant† and â€Å"suitable† are good synonyms but in this example they are not This article is copyright Higher Score, 2007. It may not be reproduced in whole or in part in any form without permission. www. higherscore. ca [email  protected] ca HIGHER SCORE TOEFL, TOEIC and IELTS clas ses for serious students How to Paraphrase Effectively close in meaning at all. Sentence 3 is a much better paraphrase of sentence 1 because all of the words have the same meaning.The best advice is to follow the â€Å"100% rule† for using synonyms: only use a synonym for a word if you are 100% certain that the new word has 100% the same meaning as the original word. If you are less than 100% certain, keep the same word and use either method two or method three to paraphrase your sentence. Paraphrasing Method 2: Change the Order of Words Changing the word order of a phrase or sentence is usually safer than using synonyms because the words are the same, so the meaning must be the same.However, it is not always easy to decide which words to move or to decide to which position the words should be moved Also, when you move a word you might need to change some other words, add some other words or cut some other words to ensure that the new sentence is grammatically correct. Here a re two suggestions for how to change the word order without making errors: a. If the original sentence has two or more clauses, change the order of the clauses. 1. â€Å"If they have some help, most people can paraphrase effectively.However, practice is important because paraphrasing is difficult. † 2. â€Å"Most people can paraphrase effectively, if they have some help. Paraphrasing is difficult, however, so practice is important. † b. If the original sentence has an adjective and noun, change the adjective into a relative clause. 1. â€Å"Writing essays can be a challenging task. † 2. â€Å"Writing essays can be a task which is challenging. † Paraphrasing Method 3: Use Different Grammar It sounds very difficult to use different grammar, but actually it is easier than changing vocabulary.In addition, if you change the grammar and make an error, usually the reader will understand what you mean. However, if you change the vocabulary and make an error, ofte n the reader will not understand what you mean. So, although changing the grammar has some advantages, it is still not easy and you should practice it as often as possible. Here are two suggestions for how to change the grammar without making errors: This article is copyright Higher Score, 2007. It may not be reproduced in whole or in part in any form without permission. www. higherscore. a [email  protected] ca HIGHER SCORE TOEFL, TOEIC and IELTS classes for serious students How to Paraphrase Effectively a. Change some of the words in the original sentence into different parts of speech (you will often need to change the word order and some other words, too). 1. â€Å"The most effective way to build your English skill is to study regularly. † 2. â€Å"The most effective way of building your English skill is to do studying on a regular basis. † b. If the original sentence is in the active voice, change it to passive or vice versa. 1. To improve English, you should le arn new vocabulary on a daily basis. † 2. â€Å"To improve English, new vocabulary should be learned on a daily basis† Further Practice By using the methods and ideas given in this article, you should be able to improve your paraphrasing skill. In tests like IELTS and TOEFL iBT you will often need to paraphrase quickly, so you need to practice regularly if you are going to get better and faster. Start by practicing each method individually and then begin combining the methods until you are comfortable at using all three of them.If you want to see more examples of paraphrasing, one of the best ideas is to compare two news articles about a current event in two different newspapers. The stories will contain most of the same details, but the sentences will be different. By comparing the sentences and paragraphs you will get more ideas about how to paraphrase and see some real examples. Newspaper websites are often a good place to see two different articles without paying fo r two different newspapers. This article is copyright Higher Score, 2007. It may not be reproduced in whole or in part in any form without permission. ww. higherscore. ca [email  protected] ca HIGHER SCORE TOEFL, TOEIC and IELTS classes for serious students How to Paraphrase Effectively Useful Words The following list defines some of the difficult words used in this article. A synonym is a word or phrase that has almost the same meaning as another word or phrase. For example, ‘smart', ‘clever' and ‘intelligent' are all synonyms because they have almost the same meaning. If two things are equivalent, they are equal or almost equal to each other although they might be in different places.For example, the British ‘prime minister' is equivalent to the United States ‘president' because both the ‘prime minister' and ‘president' are the most powerful politicians in their country. If somebody ensures something, the person makes sure that something is correct or true or OK. For example, if I am going on a trip, I will check my pocket to ensure that I have my passport. A clause is a grammar word that describes part of a sentence that contains a subject and a verb. Most clauses also contain an object or subject complement.Some clauses are ‘reduced' which means that subject (and sometimes the auxiliary verb) are omitted. The phrase part of speech is used to describe the different types of words that are used in English. For example, ‘noun', ‘verb', ‘adjective' and ‘adverb' are four common parts of speech. The expression (and/or) vice versa is used to indicate that the opposite of something which was just mentioned is also true. For example, ‘If the book is on the shelf, put it in the box and vice versa' means ‘If the book is on the shelf, put it in the box and if the book is in the box, put it on the shelf. This article is provided as a free service to all test preparation students by Hi gher Score, Canada’s number one test preparation centre. Students are welcome to send copies of this article to other students who are taking a test. However, this article may not be distributed in any other way without the express written consent of Higher Score. This article is copyright Higher Score, 2007. It may not be reproduced in whole or in part in any form without permission. www. higherscore. ca [email  protected] ca